Facilitating Metacognition in a First-Year Writing Course

By Dr. Gina Burkart, Clarke University

Metacognition and First-Year Students

The first year of college can be a difficult transition for students, as they often lack many of the basic skills to navigate the cognitive dissonance that happens that first year. Integrating tools, strategies, and assessments into first-year writing courses that foster self-reflection also offer students the opportunity to think about their own thinking. Students are often unable to “bridge the gap” of college because they don’t have the “meta-discourse” or “meta-awareness” to engage in the writing and discussions of the university (Gennrich & Dison, 2018, pp. 4-5). Essentially, it is important for first-year students to engage in what Flavell (1979) described as metacognition—thinking about what they are doing, how they are doing it, and why they are doing it, so they can make adjustments to accurately and effectively meet the needs of the situation, purpose, and audience (Victori, 1999).

This type of rhetorical analysis builds metacognitive practices integral to the first-year writing and can guide students in discovering their own voice and learning how to use it in different academic disciplines. Within the first-year writing course, portfolio conferences are especially helpful in leading students through this type of metacognitive practice (Gencel, 2017; Alexiou & Parakeva, 2010; 2013; Farahian & Avazamani, 2018). However, course curriculum should be thoughtfully created so that students are first introduced to metacognition in the beginning of the semester and led through it repeatedly throughout the semester (Schraw, 1999).

Designing a First-Year Writing Course that Facilitates Metacognition

While self-reflection has always been part of the first-year writing courses I have taught, this year I introduced metacognition in the beginning of the semester and reinforced it throughout the semester as students engaged with the course theme – Motivation. I embedded my college-success curriculum 16 Weeks to College Success: The Mindful Student, Kendall Hunt into the course, which provided tools and strategies for the students to use as they learned college writing practices.

This approach was particularly helpful in a writing class because the metacognitive reflective activities reinforced writing as a tool for learning. For example, during the first-week of the semester, students discussed the syllabus in groups and created learning plans for the course using a template. The template helped them pull out essential information and think through a personalized action plan to find success within the context of the course (see Learning Plan Template, Figure 1). For example, based on the course readings: How would they read? What strategies would they use? How much time would they devote to the reading? How often would they read? What resources would they use? Students turned in their learning plans for assigned points—and I read through the plans and made comments and suggestions. Students were told that they would update their plans over the course of the semester, which they would place in their portfolio to display growth over time.

Students also took two self-assessments, set goals based on their self-assessments, and created a time management and study plan to achieve their goals. Similar to the learning plans, these activities were also turned in for points and feedback and included in their final portfolios to demonstrate growth. One asked them to self-assess on a scale of 1-5 in key skills areas that impact success: Reading, Writing, Note-Taking, Time Management, Organization, Test-Taking, Oral Communication, Studying, and Motivation. This self-assessment also included questions in metacognitive reflection about the skills and how they relate to the course. The second self-assessment (included in the 16 Weeks textbook) was the LASSI —a nationally normed self-assessment on the key indicators of college success—provided quantitative data on a scale of 1-99. The LASSI dimensions were mapped to the skill areas for success to facilitate students’ goal setting using the goal setting chart (See Goal Setting Chart, Figure 2).

Throughout the semester, students completed skill and strategy activities from the 16 Weeks textbook supporting students’ goals and helping them complete course assignments. For example, when students were assigned their first reading assignments, the strategies for critical reading were also introduced and assigned. Students received points and feedback on their use of the reading strategies applied to the course readings, and demonstrated their application of the reading strategies through a reading journal. This reading journal was included in the portfolio (see Reading Journal template, Figure 3).

Students also were taught note-taking strategies so they could take more effective notes while watching assigned course videos on Growth Mindset, Grit and Emotional Courage. As a result, students were able to apply and learn new strategies while being exposed to key concepts related to identity, self-reflection, and metacognition. In fact, all of the course writing, speaking, and reading assignments also led the students to learn and think about topics that reinforce metacognition.

Portfolio Assessment

As portfolio assessment has been shown to positively affect metacognition and writing instruction (Farahian & Avarzmani, 2018; Alexiou & Parakva, 2010; 2013; Gencel, 2017), it seemed an appropriate culminating assessment for the course. The course curriculum built toward the portfolio throughout the semester in that the course assignments included the four steps suggested by Schaw (1998): 1) introduced and reinforced an awareness of metacognition 2) supported course learning and use of strategies 2) encouraged regulated learning 3) offered a setting that was rich with metacognition. Additionally, the course curriculum and final portfolio assessment conference included the three suggested variables of metacognitive knowledge: person, task, and strategic.

Students created a cover letter for their portfolios describing their growth in achieving the goals they set over the course of the semester. Specifically, they described new strategies, tools and resources they used and applied in the course and their other courses that helped them grow in their goal areas. The portfolio included artifacts demonstrating the application and growth. Additionally, students included their self-assessments and adjusted learning plans. Students also took the LASSI assessment as a post test in week 14 and were asked to include the pre and post-test assessments in the portfolios to compare their quantitative results and discuss growth and continued growth as part of the final conference (See Portfolio Rubric, Figure 4).

When meeting with students, students read their cover letters and talked me through their portfolios, showing me how they used and applied strategies and grew in their goal areas over the course of the semester. Part of the conversation included how they would continue to apply and/or adjust strategies, tools, and resources to continue the growth.

To reinforce metacognition and self-reflection, I had students score themselves with the portfolio and cover letter rubrics. I then scored them, and we discussed the scores. In all instances, students either scored themselves lower or the same as I scored them. They also appreciated hearing me discuss how I arrived at the scores and appreciated feedback that I had regarding their work.

In summary, students enjoyed the portfolio conferences and shared that they wished more professors used portfolios as assessments. They also shared that they enjoyed looking at their growth and putting the portfolio together. All students expressed a deeper understanding of self and expectations of college writing, reading, and learning. They also demonstrated an understanding of strategies and tools to use moving forward and gratitude for being given tools and strategies. LASSI scores demonstrated greatest growth in the skill areas of: Anxiety, Selecting Main Ideas, Self-Testing (Fall semester); Time Management, Concentration, Information Processing/Self-Testing (Spring semester). While the results reinforce that students show different areas of growth, students in both classes demonstrated highest areas of growth in reading (Selecting Main Ideas or Information Processing). Additionally, these skill areas (Time Management, Concentration, and Self-Testing) demonstrate the ability to self-regulate—suggesting that regular reinforcement of metacognition throughout the writing course and the portfolio assignment may have had a positive effect on growth and the acquisition of metacognitive practices (Shraw, 1999; Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006).

References

Alexiou, A., & Paraskeva, F. (2010). Enhancing self-regulated learning skills through the implementation of an e-portfolio tool. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 3048–3054.

Burkart, G. (2023). 16 weeks to college success: The mindful student. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt.

Farahian M. & Avarzamanim, F.. (2018) The impact of portfolio on EFL learners’ metacognition and writing performance, Cogent Education, 5:1, 1450918, https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1450918

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906

Gencel, I.E. (2017). The effect of portfolio assessments on metacognitive skills and on attitudes toward a course. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 293-319.

Gennrich, T. & Dison, L. (2018). Voice matters: Students struggle to find voice. Reading & Writing, 9(1), 1-8.

Schraw, G. (1999). The effect of metacognitive knowledge on local and global monitoring. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 143-154.

Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1, 3-14.

Victori, M. (1999). An analysis of writing knowledge in EFL composing: A case study of two effective and two less effective writers. System, 27(4), 537-555.

Weinstein, C., Palmer, D., & Acee, T. (2024). LASSI: Learning and study strategy inventory. https://www.collegelassi.com/lassi/index.html

Metacognitive Discourse—Final Course Presentations that Foster Campus Conversations about Learning

by Gina Burkart, Ed.D., Learning Specialist, Clarke University

Prior to the pandemic and now since returning to campus, there has been a shift in students’ use of group study and ability to learn and work in groups. When I began my position as Learning Specialist 10 years ago, it was not uncommon to find 30 students at group study sessions at 9 pm in the evening. Now, one group study session remains, and 2-3 students might attend the sessions (unless they are teams’ sessions required by athletic coaches). Colleagues have also shared in conversations that they have found it problematic that students avoid interacting with one another in the classroom and are not able to work and learn in physical groups. Further in my learning resource center year-end reports, data have shown a steady decline in group study attendance and a steady increase of students relying on support from me, the Learning Specialist. They want to work one/one with adults. In conversations with students and in online discussion blogs, students’ have shared a lack of inter- and intrapersonal communication skills as affecting their ability to work with their peers. In simple terms—overuse of electronic communication pre-pandemic and during the pandemic has left them unable to communicate interact with their classmates. This is problematic for a variety of reasons. In terms of learning, pedagogy is clear—learning is social (Bandura, 1977).

An Assignment to Reinforce Social Learning and Metacognition

In response, this semester, to reinforce social learning and metacognition, I changed the final assessment for the College Study Strategy course to be a final presentation that embedded metacognition and social discourse. The College Study Strategy course is metacognitive in nature in that it begins by having students reflect on their prior learning experiences, assess themselves and their skills, and set goals for the semester. It is a 1-credit course open to any student below 90 credits and can be retaken. However, in the second semester, it is almost entirely filled with students placed on academic probation or warning who are required to take the course. Curriculum includes theorists such as Marzano (2001), Bandura (1994), Ducksworth (2013), Dweck (2014), and Covey (2004) and requires them to begin applying new motivation, emotional intelligence, learning, reading, time management, study, note-taking, and test-taking strategies to their courses. In the past, students created a portfolio that demonstrated the use of their new strategies and presented their growth to me in a midterm and final conference. This year, I wanted them to share their new growth with more than me—I wanted them to share their growth with the entire community.

By changing the final project to be more outward-facing, the assignment would still be metacognitive in nature—requiring students to reflect on past learning, show how they made adjustments to learning and applied new methods and strategies, share in conversation how they made the adjustments, and finally explain how they will continue to apply strategies and continue their growth in the future with the new knowledge and strategies. Again, it would require students to share with more than me. They would need to envision a larger audience and needs—the entire campus community (administrators, students, Athletic coaches, staff, professors, recruits) and create a presentation that could be adjusted to the audience. They would practice inter and intra-personal skills as they made adjustments to their presentation over the course of 2 hours while they remained at station in the library, prepared to share their presentation as members of the campus community approached. This also allowed for the campus community to benefit from the students’ new knowledge and growth of the semester. And, being on a small scale, it re-introduced students to the art of in-person, face-face conversation between each other and the value of seeking information from each other. This is something that has been eroding due to a heavy use of electronic communication and isolated learning that occurred during the pandemic.

Students were introduced to this assignment in week one of the semester. They were told that in week 6 they would choose any topic from the course curriculum that they felt they needed to focus on more intently based on their semester goals. Once choosing the curriculum they would focus on (ex: motivation, reading, procrastination, time management, studying, growth mindset), they would then research a different article each week related to their chosen topic (weeks 6-12) and apply the new critical reading strategy taught in class to create journal entries that would be used to prepare content for the final presentation. In weeks 14 or 15, they would present in the library at a table (poster session style) during a time of their choosing (two-hour block) to the campus community about their topic. The presentation needed to include some type of visual and the content needed to include all of the following metacognitive information about the topic:

past struggles
reasons for choosing the topic
strategies learned in class
information learned in their research
recommendations for other students struggling
strategies for continued growth

Positive Impact and Take-Aways

While students were nervous and hesitant prior to the presentations, during and after the presentations, they admitted to having fun sharing about their growth and learning. Staff, faculty, and students were also appreciative of the presentations and made a point of attending. Some future students/recruits even attended as they were touring. Not surprising, most students chose to present about motivation, time management and procrastination. A few students chose to present about growth mindset, Bloom’s Taxonomy as a study strategy, and reading. A surprising take-away was that in the metacognitive process of the presentation, many students connected improved reading strategies to increased motivation and reduction in procrastination.

While observing the presentations, it was encouraging to see students learn to adapt their presentations as people approached. Since they were stationed at a table for two hours, they needed to present the material many times to different types of audiences—and they had to field questions. As they presented and represented, they learned how to interact and present differently based on the needs of the audience. This adaptation required the use of metacognition and rhetorical analysis. It also built inter- and intrapersonal communication skills. It also came at a good time in the semester, as students were authentically seeking many of the strategies and skills to prepare for finals, conclude the semester, and look forward to the next semester. Many of the presenters had friends and team members, coaches, and faculty come to hear their presentations (as I had advertised the presentations to the campus in advance). In conclusion, metacognitive presentations that engage the entire campus community in discourse about learning may be a helpful step toward rebuilding learning communities post-pandemic. Next semester, I will continue this assignment. Additionally, next semester, I am working on embedding group reading labs into targeted courses to improve learning, motivation and reduce procrastination in the classroom.

Pandemic Pedagogy: Lessons Learned about Fostering Online Metacognitive Conversations to Increase Motivation in Students

by Gina Burkart, Ed.D., Learning Specialist, Clarke University

The 2021 Academic year brought new challenges to education, as teaching and learning quickly moved online. Those who had never taught online received crash courses and hoped for the best. Students found themselves learning either remotely from home or alone in dorm rooms through web conferencing. While online learning offered convenience, the remote and distant nature of the learning often left students and professors feeling isolated from each other. As a professor, I noticed students to be less engaged in discussions and interactions with each other. In online forums, other professors and colleagues complained of the same. As the semester progressed, students’ motivation seemed to plummet.

As the Learning Specialist on campus, I reach out regarding the Academic Concerns raised for students on campus. Academic Concerns are raised by professors through an electronic alert system when students struggle academically or stop attending class. The concerns come to my email and I reach out to the students and cc the students’ advisors and athletic coaches. During the 2020-21 academic year, I observed a large increase in concerns sent for students not submitting assignments, not attending class, and not participating in discussions. Lack of student motivation seemed to underlie many of these trends. As I read articles and discussion boards across the nation, I saw the problem was epidemic.

This blog post describes how I addressed this lack of motivation and engagement by incorporating metacognitive conversations into my work with students for whom Academic Concerns had been raised, and by incorporating similar metacognitive exercises into my Learning Strategies course. The majority of the students in the Learning Strategies course are on academic probation, so they often start with very low motivation. Some had been dismissed but allowed back in to the university on a last chance.

Engaging Struggling Students through Empathy and Metacognitive Conversations

I have been working with college students for over twenty years, and it continues to amaze me how much they crave to be heard. As previously mentioned, the past year, this need for connection and communication was epidemic—so much so that my calendar was full of meetings with students (every 30 minutes) throughout the entire Fall semester. Students wanted to meet and talk—and they often scheduled regular weekly meetings. The other anomaly was they kept the meetings—even on Fridays! These meetings became pivotal to rebuilding their motivation. And, it all began with empathy.

Discussions of the effects of technology on relationships and the importance of empathy in education are not new. Social Psychologist Sherry Turkle has been researching this connection between technology and human relationships since the 1970’s. Most recently she has written about how increased time with technology has negatively impacted our ability to interact with each other. In Reclaiming Conversation: The Power of Talk in a Digital Age, Turkle (2015) said “Fully present to one another, we learn to listen. It is where we develop the capacity for empathy. . . . And conversation advances self-reflection, the conversations with ourselves . . . . (p. 3).

In meeting with the students, even though it was online, I worked to remove the barrier of technology and make the meeting human by conversing with them as though we were sitting together casually in my office. I asked students how they were doing, the names of their cats and dogs, about their family members, and I told them a little bit about what was going on with me. THEN I asked about what was going on with their courses. I empathized with them a bit and then we moved on to problem solve in a metacognitive conversation. A metacognitive conversation guides students in reflecting on and monitoring their cognitive processes, progress, and performance to build self-efficacy. For example, after empathizing with a student, I asked:

What is causing you to not turn in the assignments?
What might you do about that? How could I help?
What is interfering with you attending class? What might make a difference? How could I help?
How did you study for the test? What is one change you could make?
What if you tried this?
How might I help you?

I found it helpful to ask open-ended questions and let them talk as much as possible. Students really like to be heard. Many are seldom listened to and crave an audience. They also benefit from hearing themselves. Also, I benefit from hearing them talk—as I begin to pick up on themes I can say things like “I heard you say _____ a couple of times. This leads me to believe you tend to _____________.” They often respond with “exactly!” I then offer them some suggestions based on research and show them resources to try.

Together, we form a simple goal for them to implement and accomplish in a week and check on in the next week. I model it and practice it with them. Also, I connect the struggling student with a student Academic Coach who is trained by me. They can continue to work on the goal and engage in further metacognitive conversations. This type of follow up and academic mentoring between students fosters motivation and metacognition, as evidenced by increased class participation, improved GPAs, and attendance.

As Turkle (2021) shared in her latest book The Empathy Diaries “ . . . only shared vulnerability and human empathy allow us to truly understand one another” (xix). Once the students felt heard and understood, they were willing to work with me to solve their problems. In knowing someone else invested in them, they were willing to invest in themselves.

Infusing Metacognition in a Learning Strategies Course

I needed to revisit this lesson in my own teaching in the Spring when I also noticed a lack of student motivation in my own courses—even with the new infused strategies. And, it wasn’t that the students were confused. Over and over, they told me that the course was simple and easy to use and made sense. They demonstrated the ability to find materials and understanding of how to access materials. Yet, assignments were not being turned in. As motivation dwindled, important curriculum would not be studied and articles would go unread. Deadlines continued to be missed. The online chats I had set up with peer mentors for participation were not being attended. Engagement was dismal and grades were plummeting. So, although I already had incorporated some metacognitive strategies into the course, at midterm I attempted to infuse what was working with one/one meetings with students.

This effort began with midterm conferences. I always have had students evaluate themselves on the goals they set at the beginning of the semester and go over how they are progressing in the course. Students have always been amazingly honest. When I did this during the spring 2021 semester, they openly and apologetically shared they were not motivated and were not looking at the curriculum or submitting work. So, we focused on what was causing the lack of motivation.

Since the course curriculum (College Study Strategies) had all the resources they needed to solve the motivation problems, we revisited the resources in the course that they had missed—such as articles, videos, and power points on motivation, procrastination, time management, and so on. We read some together and set goals. I also reopened the deadlines so they could revisit the curriculum they needed and complete the discussions (now that they had purpose and motivation). They admitted they had known where the resources were and how to access them—they said they just had not had motivation to do it. But, after we had discussed how the resources applied to their situation and would help, and set specific goals, they began to appreciate a reason and need to access the materials.

To reinforce the goals set and encourage usage and follow through of the materials, I allowed extra credit to make up missed online chats related to the missed curriculum if students scheduled meetings to discuss the curriculum with an Academic Coach. The Academic Coach reported the meetings to me. The results of behavior changes after midterm conferences were significant. For example, at midterm there were 15 Fs in the course out of 28 students. When I submitted final grades, there were only 5 Fs. One F had changed to an A and 2 Fs had become Bs.

This experience led me to again appreciate the power of metacognitive conversations with students. Specifically, it reinforced how empathy can motivate students—even through technology and in a pandemic.

References

Turkle, S. (2021). The empathy diaries. New York: Penguin Press.

Turkle, S. (2015). Reclaiming conversations: The power of talking in a digital age. New York: Penguin Press.

Image from: https://www.connecttocommunicate.com/

Connecting Emotional Intelligence with Metacognition

by Gina Burkart, Ed.D., Learning Specialist, Clarke University

Emotional intelligence has been receiving lots of attention in the news. In fact, recent research has shown that higher levels of emotional intelligence can lead to salary increases (Rode, Arthaud-Day, Rmaswami, & Howes, 2017). So what exactly is emotional intelligence? It is the ability to recognize, think about, and regulate how one’s thoughts and emotions are impacting one’s behaviors and habits. These characteristics link it with metacognition because it correlates with our ability to think about what we do, how we do it, and how we think about our own thinking and whether or not we even engage in metacognition.

Nuhfer (2017) also addressed this relationship when he explored how affect governs how we think and feel, and determines how we filter the world and operate—thus controlling our success and failure. Additionally, studies are showing that guiding college students in developing emotional intelligence leads to increases in retention and persistence of college students (Mendez, Aronold, Erjavec, & Lopez, 2018-2019). Likewise, research indicates holistic interventions that focus on non-cognitive factors might make the biggest difference in helping students recover academically (Friedlander, Reid, Shupak, & Cribbie, 2007).

Emotional intelligence and metacognition both can be developed through careful curriculum development that allows space in the classroom for both introspective and group work. This blog post shares some examples of collaborative work with our campus learning center – these efforts help students find productive cognitive and emotional strategies that foster new habits and support their success.

Strategies for Embedding Metacognition Linked with Emotional Intelligence into the Classroom

Embedding emotional intelligence and metacognition into a college classroom might seem overwhelming or be perceived as taking time away from necessary content. However, many strategies can be quickly and easily embedded into existing curriculum and increase learning and efficacy of students. Each of the processes I describe below have components to 1) bring awareness to feelings related to academic performance, 2) identify possible strategies, and 3) support emotional self-regulation in enacting strategies.

Journaling based on the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Model

I have found the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Model to be a useful tool to facilitate metacognition and emotional intelligence throughout the semester. The model guides students in knowing self, choosing self, and giving self to establish what is needed or what feelings are occurring, how the student will respond based on what is needed and how he or she is feeling, and why that is the appropriate action.

This model can be used in a variety of courses to assign an easy 5-minute journal prompt at the beginning of each class period. For example, I have students use What, How, and Why to reflect on and write about how they are feeling (aspect of emotional intelligence) and what they are learning on index cards. I collect them immediately after the 5 minutes has passed. During small group work, I quickly read through the cards and write quick suggestions/feedback upon them and then return the cards to the students. It also helps me keep my pulse on how the class is feeling (instructor emotional intelligence). For example, a student might write:

What Feeling: Not confident in class participation, feel anxious
How Respond: More time spent reading the class assignments before class (My comment to student—Great idea! SQ3R would be an efficient and effective strategy to review the chapter 30 minutes before class)
Why: If I am familiar with the material, I will have confidence and participate. My participation grade and learning of the material will improve.

Identifying and Appropriately Responding to Distorted Thoughts

Because emotions are based on thoughts, and thoughts can be inaccurate, I have found it very helpful to teach students about distorted thoughts and how to correct them. I spend two class periods on this in the college study strategy course that I teach. During week three (the week research shows us students decide to leave college) of the College Study Strategy course, I introduce students to different types of distorted thoughts (e.g. overgeneralization – one negative event is seen as a pattern; comparative thinking – you measure yourself by others’ ability even if that comparison may be inaccurate), ask them to share experiences, and then have them record and counter the experiences throughout the week in a response journal. Additionally, I have them identify in a chart examples of distorted thoughts in characters of stories, shows, or movies they have watched. We then discuss them in class the following week. This approach has also been integrated into the Introduction to Physical Therapy course and the Introduction to Nursing course.

I also facilitate workshops on the topic of distorted thoughts, tailoring the content to the course curriculum. Handout 1 can be a helpful resource for facilitating this with students—and can be incorporated into the Six Second model. Additionally, I assign journal reflections based on student self-identified, distorted thoughts that occur throughout the week (See Handout 2).

Summary

In thinking about how to integrate emotional regulation and metacognition strategies into curriculum, it is helpful to recall that people are intrinsically motivated when they have a deeper understanding of self, one aspect of which is the emotional self. Recent research has shown that students with high levels of intrinsic motivation are more productive, persistent, and have higher levels of emotional wellbeing (Froiland, Oros, Smith, & Hirchert, 2012).

Embedding these types of emotional intelligence and metacognition assignments need not be complex or complicated. The more frequently students engage in the process of thinking about what they are doing and feeling, and make adjustments to their practices based on that thinking, the more likely this will become an automatic practice. Actually, making emotional self-regulation quick and routine will make identification and control of emotions a productive habit for the students and professors. And, ultimately, it will increase learning, persistence and carry over into the students’ personal lives and careers.

References

Friedlander, L..J., et al. (2007) Social support, self-esteem, and stress as predictors of adjustment to university among first-year undergraduates. Journal of College Student development, 48(3), 259-274.

Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L. & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 16, 91-101.

Mendez, S., Arnold, C. Erjavec, P., Lopez, L. (2018-2019). Does emotional intelligence predict persistence among students on academic probation? Journal of Student Affairs, 107-117. https://sahe.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2019/09/SAHE-journal-2019.pdf#page=54

Rode, J. C., Arthaud-Day, M. L., Ramawami, A., Howes, S. (2017). A time-lagged study of emotional intelligence and salary. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 101, 77-89. Retrieved from https://paperdownload.me/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/5535-time-lagged-emotional-intelligence-salary.pdf

The Power of Social Discourse While Teaching Online during a Pandemic: Using an Online Discussion Board to Engage Metacognition

by Gina Burkart, Ed.D., Learning Specialist, Clarke University

The recent shift to online learning has resulted in class discussions taking place on an online discussion board; while some may not realize it, the discussion board can be a strategic resource for facilitating metacognition in the classroom (Burkart, 2010). This practice is supported by a range of pedagogical research. Eflkides (2008) reminded us of the interrelatedness of self and social within the workings of metacognition. And, research shows that metacognition grows based on the continuous flow of information through cognitive systems of self and other. This growth is further enriched through the use of language for reflection upon and communication of these processes with others (Efklides, 2008; Burkart, 2010; Ruffman, Slade, & Crow, 2002). Additionally, assigned discussion on the online discussion board fulfills the criteria that VanZile-Tamsen and Livingston (1999) found to increase positive motivation in students: self-efficacy, sense of control, relevance, emphasis on learning.

silhouette image of 4 people with one talking and the others listening

Creating Metacognitive Prompts

Key to the success of this approach is the creation of effective discussion prompts. Fostering metacognitive awareness and self-regulation begins with a reflection of self within the context of the course curriculum and then calls for a reflection of self through the lens of others by prompting for a response to a classmate’s discussion post (Burkart, 2010). In a literature course this might look something like:

“Which character of the story did you relate with most? Why? Also, respond to one of your classmates using text from the story for support.”

In responding to another student’s post, students see themselves through the lens of other. Crossley (2000) reminded us in her explorations of narrative analysis that reflection of self is also social. How we see ourselves “relies on the feedback and evaluations we receive from others” (p. 12). Crossley (2000), like Bogdan and Biklen (2003), used George Herbert Mead’s (1962/1934) research on self. She referred to Mead’s (1962/1934) metaphor of “the looking glass self” (p. 12) to illustrate our tendency to see ourselves through the eyes of others. To further this metaphor, one might imagine the online discussion board as “a looking glass self.” This provides instructors and students with a useful tool for not only examining how students perceive their selves and their learning, but also for how students interact with others and influence each other as they engage in the reflexive behavior of learning (Burkart, 2010).

Looking at students’ responses to each other allows students to use their classmates’ experiences to frame their own experiences. For example, consider the following student’s response to a classmate:

I’ve struggled with my anxiety as well and test taking has always been my weakness. Maybe if you try to relax and take deep breathes in and out before a test it can help with your test anxiety. This has helped me in the past, by doing this I realized that I was more calm than usual especially when I try to get my mind off things.

By sharing awareness of their own anxiety and struggles, the student is reflecting upon herself in relation to the other student’s experience. The student then reflects upon strategies that she has tried and offers the other student guidance. This online sharing allows the student to find value in strategies that she has already tried and also reinforces to both students (and the entire class) that they are not alone in their struggles with anxiety.

In this reflexive and reflective behavior, students are metacognitively making choices about their behaviors and their classmates’ behaviors without realizing they are engaging in metacognition. This shows that curriculum can seamlessly embed metacognition into learning, and the online discussion board is a useful tool for doing so.

Student Discussion as a Tool for Monitoring Metacognitive Processing

As a professor, the online discussion is also a tool for monitoring students’ metacognitive processing. It allows teachers to adjust teaching based on the needs of the class, i.e. engage in metacognitive instruction. For example, after seeing several posts and responses regarding anxiety, I often choose to focus on anxiety and resources for dealing with anxiety and test anxiety in the next class period. In this regard, the discussion board also becomes an important tool in meta-motivational monitoring (Miele & Scholer, 2018). It allows the professor to oversee the accuracy of the students’ “self, task and strategy knowledge” (p. 3) and intervene or reinforce through responses to the students on the discussion board or in shaping and/or reshaping of curriculum in the classroom.

For example, in an introductory literature course, the discussion board was used to help students reflect on self and how self unfolded in their narratives while they used literary techniques and strategies to shape their narratives and connect with an audience. They also were to reflect specifically on the writing and revision process. After students wrote their creative nonfiction narrative, they were asked to respond to the following question in 150 words and then to a classmate’s post in 50 words:

“What new self-epiphanies emerged for you while writing and revising your narrative?”

The student responses to the prompt revealed that the creative nonfiction narrative assignment was a powerful tool for metacognition in that it made them think about their writing choices more intentionally. In the revision and editing processes, the students had to rethink self and rethink the shape of their narrative and how they told it based on feedback they received from their audience. This online activity guided students in a powerful metacognitive reflection while they commented on how their story connected or did not connect with an audience, revisions they would make in the use of literary devices to better connect with their audience, and revisions they needed to make in writing technique.

With each reading of their narrative and reflection of comments from classmates in regards to their narratives, the students reflected on self and perception of self. Additionally, students reflected on self while they read each other’ posts and comments. As mentioned previously, this reflexive, mirror effect also results in a metacognitive reflection of self. When students read about how other students are changing and growing, they are prompted to reflect on and make similar changes of self. Thus, self, revision of the narrative, revision of technique, revision of the narrative, and revision of writing all became intertwined on the discussion board and prompted metacognitive growth.

References

Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and methods (4^th ed). Boston: Pearson Education Group, Inc.

Burkart, G. (2010, Dec). First-Year College Student Beliefs about Writing Embedded in Online Discourse: An Analysis and Its Implications to Literacy Learning. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA.

Burkart, G. (2010, May). An analysis of online discourse and its application to literacy learning, The Journal of Literacy and Learning. Retrieved from http://www.literacyandtechnology.org/uploads/1/3/6/8/136889/jlt_v11_1.pdf#page=64

Crossley, M. (2000). Introducing narrative psychology: Self, trauma, and the construction of meaning. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13 (4), 277-287. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232452693_Metacognition_Defining_Its_Facets_ad_Levels_of_Functioning_in_Relation_to_Self -Regulation_and_Co-regulation

Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist.

Miele, D. B. & Scholer, A. A. (2018). The role of metamotivational monitoring in motivation regulation, Educational Psychologist, 53(1), 1-21.

Ruffman, T., Slade, L., & Crowe, E. (2002). The relation between children’s and mothers’ mental state language and theory-of-mind understanding. Child Development, 73, 734-751.

VanZile-Tamsen, C. & Livingston, Jennifer. J. A. (1999). The differential impact of motivation on the self-regulated strategy use of high- and low-achieving college student. Journal of College Student Develompment, (40)1, 54-60. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net /publication/232503812_The_differential_impact_of_motivation_on_the_self-regulated_strategy_use_of_high -_and_low-achieving_college_students

How to Use Post-Test Analysis to Facilitate Metacognition in the College Classroom

by Gina Burkart, Ed.D., Learning Specialist, Clarke University

Pedagogy for Embedding Strategies into Classes

The transition to college is difficult. Students quickly discover that their old strategies from high school do not serve them well in college when they fail their first exam. As the Learning Specialist, I guide these students in modifying strategies and behaviors and in finding new strategies. This also involves helping them move away from a fixed mindset where they believe some students are just born smarter than others and move toward a growth mindset where they reflect on habits and strategies and how to set goals and make changes to achieve desired outcomes. Reflective metacognitive discussion and exercises that develop a growth mindset are necessary for this type of triaging with students (Dweck, 2006; Masters, 2013; Efklides, 2008; VanZile-Tamsen & Livingston, 1999; Livingston, 2003).

As the Learning Specialist at the University, I work with students who are struggling, and I also work with professors in developing better teaching strategies to reach students. When learning is breaking down, I have found that oftentimes the most efficient and effective method of helping students find better strategies is to collaborate with the professor and facilitate strategy workshops in the classroom tailored to the course curriculum. This allows me to work with several students in a short amount of time—while also supporting the professor by demonstrating teaching strategies he or she might integrate into future classes.

An example of a workshop that works well when learning is breaking down in the classroom is the the post-test analysis workshop. The post-test analysis workshop (see activity details below) often works well in classes after the first exam. Since most students are stressed about their test results, the metacognitive workshop de-escalates anxiety by guiding students in strategic reflection of the exam. The reflection demonstrates how to analyze the results of the exam so that they can form new habits and behaviors in attempt to learn and perform better on the next exam. The corrected exam is an effective tool for fostering metacognition because it shows the students where errors have occurred in their cognitive processing (Efklides, 2008). The activity also increases self-awareness, imperative to metacognition, as it helps students connect past actions with future goals (Vogeley, Jurthen, Falkai, & Maier, 1999). This is an important step in helping students take control of their own learning and increasing motivation (Linvingston & VanZile Tamsen, 1999; Palmer & Goetz, 1988; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990).

Post-Test Analysis Activity

When facilitating this activity, I begin by having the professor hand back the exams. I then take the students through a serious of prompts that engage them in metacognitive analysis of their performance on the exams. Since metacognitive experiences also require an awareness of feeling (Efklides, 2008), it works well to have students begin by recalling how they felt after the exam:

How did you feel?
How did you think you did?
Were your feelings and predictions accurate?

The post-test analysis then prompts the students to connect their feelings with how they prepared for the exam:

What strategies did you use to study?
- Bloom’s Taxonomy—predicting and writing test questions from book and notes
- Group study
- Individual study
- Concept cards
- Study guides
- Created concept maps of the chapters
- Synthesized notes
- Other methods?

Students are given 1-3 minutes to reflect in journal writing upon those questions. They are then prompted to analyze where the test questions came from (book, notes, power point, lab, supplemental essay, online materials, etc.) It may be helpful to have students work collaboratively for this.

An Analysis of the Test—Where the Information Came From

For each question identify where the test question came from:
- Book (B)
- In-class notes (C)
- Online materials (O)
- Supplemental readings (S)
- Not sure (?)

After identifying where the test information came from, students are then prompted to reflect in journal writing upon the questions they missed and how they might study differently based upon the questions they missed and where the questions came from. For example, a student may realize that he or she missed all of the questions that came from the book. That student may then make a goal to synthesizing class notes right after class with material from the book 30 minutes after class, and then use note reduction to create a concept map to study for the next test.

Another student might realize that he or she missed questions because of test-taking errors. For example, she didn’t carefully read the entire question and then chose the wrong response. To resolve this issue, she decided she would underline question words on the test and in attempt to slow down while reading test questions. She also realized that she changed several responses that she had correct. She will resist the urge to overthink her choices and change responses on the next test.

Next, students are taught about Bloom’s Taxonomy and how it is used by professors to write exams. In small groups, students then use Bloom’s Taxonomy to identify question types. This will take about 20-30 minutes—depending upon the length of the test. For example, students would identify the following test question as a comprehension-level question: Which of the following best describes positive reinforcement? Whereas, the following question would be noted as an application-level question: Amy’s parents give her a lollipop every time she successfully uses the toilet. What type of reinforcement is this?

Question Type: Identify What Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy the Test Question is Assessing

Knowledge-level questions
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation

Students sometimes struggle with distinguishing the different levels of questions. So, it is helpful to also ask small groups to share their identified questions with the large group, as well as how they determined it to be that level of question. The professor also is a helpful resource in this discussion.

After discussion of the questions types, students then return to individual reflection, as they are asked to count the number of questions they missed for each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. They are also asked to reflect upon what new strategies they will use to study based on this new awareness.

Adding It All Up

Count the number of questions missed in each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Which types of questions did you miss most often?
Compare this with your study methods.
What adjustments might you make in your studying and learning of class material based on this information? Which levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy do you need to focus more on with your studying?

Finally, students are asked to use the class reflections and post-test assessment to create a new learning plan for the course. (See the learning plan in my previous post, Facilitating Metacognition in the Classroom: Teaching to the Needs of Your Students). Creating the Learning Plan could be a graded assignment that students are asked to do outside of class and then turn in. Students could also be referred to the Academic Resource Center on campus for additional support in formulating the Learning Plan. Additionally, a similar post-test assessment could be assigned outside of class for subsequent exams and be assigned a point value. This would allow for ongoing metacognitive reflection and self-regulated learning.

This type Cognitive Strategy Instruction (Scheid, 1993) embedded into the classroom offers students a chance to become more aware of their own cognitive processes, strategies for improving learning, and the practice of using cognitive and metacognitive processes in assessing their success (Livingston, 2003). Importantly, these types of reflective assignments move students away from a fixed mindset to a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006). As Masters (2013) pointed out “Assessment information of this kind provides starting points for teaching and learning.” Additionally, because post-test assessment offers students greater self-efficacy, control of their own learning, purpose, and an emphasis on the learning rather than the test score, it also positively affects motivation (VanZile-Tamsen & Livingston, 1999).

References

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Balantine Books.

Livingston, J. A. (2003). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED474273.pdf

Masters, G. N. (2013). Towards a growth mindset assessment. Retrieved from https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=ar_misc

Palmer, D. J., & Goetz, E. T. (1988). Selection and use of study strategies: The role of studier’s beliefs about self and strategies. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation (pp. 41-61). San Diego, CA: Academic.

Pintrich, P. R., & DeGroot, E. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40

Pintrich, P. R., & DeGroot, E. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40.

VanZile-Tamsen, C. & Livingston, Jennifer. J. A. (1999). The differential impact of motivation on the self regulated strategy use of high- and low-achieving college student. Journal of College Student Develompment, (40)1, 54-60. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232503812_The_differential_impact_of_motivation_on_the_self-regulated_strategy_use_of_high-_and_low-achieving_college_students

Vogeley, K., Kurthen, M., Falkai, P., & Maier, W. (1999). Essential functions of the human self model are implemented in the prefrontal cortex. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 343-363.

Facilitating Metacognition in the Classroom: Teaching to the Needs of Your Students

by Gina Burkart, EdD, Learning Specialist, Clarke University

Once instructors understand the strengths and weaknesses of students, they can begin to adapt how they deliver the content of their course in ways that their students will be able to connect with it. This makes self-assessments valuable tools for learning and teaching (Burkart, 2020). Self-Assessments help professors note students’ strengths, weaknesses, and perceptions of self so that they can teach curriculum to the needs of the students. This allows professors to use metacognition in their own teaching, i.e. metacognitive instruction.

Mapping Out a Plan for Teaching and Learning

In my own courses, student assessments guide me in using a chart to map out a plan of how to address students’ needs while teaching the planned curriculum on the syllabus. This allows me to be mindful of my teaching and how it is connecting with students as the semester unfolds. The chart helps me note and monitor my students’ strengths and weaknesses, how these may impact course goals/outcomes and strategies that I will use to help my students adapt to the content demands of the course. See Figure 1 for an example chart.

Likewise, it is also helpful to guide students in using metacognition to create their own learning plans for the semester. Creating learning plans can be an effective activity for the first meeting of the class, while going through the course syllabus.

To facilitate this activity, a professor might hand out the syllabus, give students 5-10 minutes to read through the syllabus, and then have them share responses to the following questions in small groups to more strategically and critically read the syllabus and discuss it with classmates:

What prior reading and writing experiences have shaped you as a learner?
Based on this course syllabus, what challenges do you anticipate?
What strategies and resources will you use to meet these challenges?
What are your goals for this course?
How can you connect the material of this course with your major?
How can we as your learning community support you with your learning and goals? What do you need from us?

The small groups can then be invited to share their responses with the large group and write them on the board. Professors might then take a picture of the board and refer back to it later to use as an informal student assessment to inform teaching.

Finally, students return to small groups to create a more detailed and personalized plan of what they might do in order to find success and meet the outcomes of class. Professors might provide a template of a learning plan that would guide students in going through the syllabus and pulling out key information to create the plan. See Figure 2 for an example student learning plan.

Having these types of activities and discussions at the beginning of a course empowers students, as they realize that they are in charge of their learning. As Biggs and Tang (2011) have recognized, student engagement increases when students feel co-ownership and empowerment in the classroom.

Adaptation for Online Courses

This metacognitive activity can also be adapted in an online course through Voice Thread. Voice Thread allows students to create and upload an interactive, video recording of themselves. I have asked students to respond to the same questions in a 3-5-minute Voice Thread video and to also respond to a classmate’s Voice Thread. Additionally, after completing the Voice Threads, students were required to electronically submit a learning plan based on the syllabus for course credit. Similar to the in-class discussions in the face-to-face class, this activity fosters the metacognitive monitoring process that Flavell (1979) described. As students reflect on the skills necessary for the course outcomes, prior metacognitive knowledge and experiences resurface as goals are set and strategies for achieving the goals are identified and shared. Professors are then also able to monitor the needs of the students and provide feedback related to goals and strategies.

In both instances, students are able to share about their learning in a social setting, which reminds students they are not alone in their learning. This is important because students learn about their own learning and self by reflecting on the learning of others (Mead, 1962/1934; Burkart, 2010).

Assignments and Activities that Continue to Foster Metacognitive Growth throughout the Semester

Professors can continue to foster metacognition throughout the semester by integrating assignments and activities that reinforce reflection on learning, strategies, and goal setting. For example, professors might begin each class period with a 1-minute pre-write where students list main points from the assigned readings, questions they want to discuss in class, and why the material is relevant and important. I often have students do this on an index card, and I collect them and use the cards to guide my teaching during the class. While students are engaged in group work, I quickly go through the cards, award a check, plus, or minus with brief comments (to show I value metacognitive work) and incorporate these into class participation points. Questions that students wanted to discuss in class are then discussed. Sometimes, I pose the questions to the large group for discussion. Other times, I distribute the questions to small groups and assign them to formulate a response for the rest of the class.

Not only does using students’ questions in class show students that they are being listened to, it acknowledges that their questions are valued and their preparatory work outside of class is connected to learning inside the classroom. And, based on their questions and class discussion, I rethink strategies and interventions to help students better access the course materials. As Simmons (2017) noted, this type of participatory pedagogy makes students more aware of their own cognitive processes.

The following is a list of activities that I have used or recommended to faculty to foster student metacognition in the classroom (Burkart, 2019):

1-minute prewrite at the beginning of class
Create or model note-taking and reading that facilitates learning
Model thinking aloud with problem solving, reading, interpreting
Incorporate learning checks
Assign post-test or assignment analysis
Encourage learning material on all levels of learning by assessing and modeling strategies scholars use: concept mapping, reading journals, study/note journals, portfolios
Reward revision, rethinking, growth by awarding points to final products
Use wrappers while teaching
Encourage or arrange study groups
Relate the material to students’ lives and experiences
Create and assign course blogs with prompts that encourage reflection and discussion on goals, use of strategies, and challenges and growth with learning course material
Create group tests/assessments

While monitoring students’ needs and growth throughout the semester, professors can use this list to use metacognition in their own teaching—establish goals and integrate strategies to impact student learning. In turn, this will guide students in reflecting on their learning and increase engagement. Most importantly it provides practice in metacognition that empowers students to take control of their own learning that will carry over into other classes and their personal lives outside of the classroom.

References

Biggs, J. B., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at the university: What the student does. Maidenhead, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

Burkart, G. (2019). Engaging the unengaged in the college classroom. Faculty workshop—by request, Clarke University, Dubuque, IA.

Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Simmons, N. (2017). Participatory Pedagogy: Inviting Student Metacognition. Retrieved from https://www.improvewithmetacognition.com/developing_student_metacognition_simmons/

Getting to Know Your Students: Using Self-Assessment in the Classroom to Foster Metacognition

by Gina Burkart, EdD, Learning Specialist, Clarke University

The Process of Metacognition

As retention continues to dominate discussions at most universities, metacognition may provide much insight. Flavell’s (1979) early and hallmark work on metacognition defined metacognition as an individual’s reflection on how he or she learns and developed a model to depict the process of this reflection. According to Flavell (1979), metacognition “occurs through the actions and interactions” of “metacognitive knowledge,” “metacognitive experiences,” “goals/tasks,” “actions/strategies” (p. 906). Understanding how the metacognitive process impacts learning is key to developing effective curriculum, helping students learn material, and motivating students to learn.

Self-Assessment to Enhance One-on-one Mentoring

As the Learning Specialist at Clarke University, one of my responsibilities is meeting with, monitoring, and guiding students in finding effective learning strategies. In this role, I meet with students one-on-one, reach out to students who have received student concerns flags raised by professors, create and coordinate academic support (Academic Coaching and Supplemental instruction), collaborate and guide faculty in developing curriculum through workshops and consultations, and hire, train and supervise the Academic Coaches in the Academic Learning, mentor and meet with students placed on Academic Warning and Probation, and teach the College Study Strategy course and courses in the English department.

In working with students who have been placed on probation and warning, I find that students often fail because they lack motivation and purpose. And, commonly, the motivation and purpose have been affected by inaccurate metacognitive knowledge. Flavell’s (1979) model of Cognitive Monitoring offers a schema for understanding how this might occur and how to help students find motivation and purpose and improve their academic standing.

As noted earlier, Flavell (1979) found that our metacognitive knowledge is informed by our metacognitive experiences. Thus, negative experiences or experiences where distorted thought processes created inaccurate metacognitive knowledge about self might result in a lack of purpose or motivation. For example, if a first-year student fails two tests in Biology and compares himself or herself to some classmates who received As, he or she might conclude that he or she is incapable of learning Biology, is not capable of ever becoming a doctor, and should not attend college.

In meeting with the student, I would help the student reflect on how he or she was reading, studying, and taking notes in the Biology course. Additionally, I would help the student reflect on time management and organization strategies. I would also point out the flaw in comparing oneself with others in assessing one’s own abilities. Once the student realizes the flaws of thinking and forms new metacognitive knowledge and experiences, he or she works with me to establish realistic goals and implement new strategies for achieving the goals. Motivation and purpose then quickly improve, and students find success. In some instances students have moved from academic probation to Dean’s List in as little as one semester.

Helping students find success involves helping them discover what they believe about themselves (metacognitive self knowledge), setting goals and finding strategies to achieve the goals. To begin this process, students must first reflect on and assess themselves. As research has shown, unless the self-system is activated, learning will not occur (Mead, 1962/1934; Bandura, 1994; Marzano, 2001; Piaget, 1954; Vygotsky, 1934/1987; Burkart, 2010).

Incorporating Self-Assessment in the College Classroom

In addition to working with students in one-on-one mentoring, I have also found that this type of cognitive monitoring can be fostered in the classroom through the use of self-assessments. As demonstrated by Taraban (2019), self-assessments can be simple or more nuanced depending on the preferences of the professor and the needs of the course curriculum. The self-assessment can be created by the professor or be a nationally normed assessment. Additionally, the assessments can be closely connected to the outcomes of the course and revisited throughout the semester.

I have integrated self-assessments into my own teaching in a variety of ways. For example, in the College Study Strategy course that I teach, I begin the semester with an informal self-assessment by having students rate themselves (5 high and 1 low) in the following course content areas that impact academic performance: reading, time management, organization, test taking, and studying. Additionally, I have them identify strengths and weaknesses in each of these areas and set goals (See Figure 1 for a sample self-assessment and Figure 2 for a sample goal-setting chart).

Students then complete a more formal self-assessment, the nationally normed LASSI (Learning and Study Strategies Inventory). This self-assessment is quick and easy (takes about 10 minutes) and allows students to see how they compare nationally with other students taking the inventory in the following areas: Selecting Main Ideas, Information Processing, Time Management, Self-Testing, Motivation, Concentration, Attitude, Use of Academic Resources, and Test Taking. Students then share their assessments with each other in pairs and large group discussions. In almost all cases, the LASSI and informal assessments match and students find the LASSI results to be accurate. The comparison of data from a nationally normed self-assessment with an informal self-assessment offers students a way for checking the accuracy of their knowledge of self.

These assessments also provide purpose and focus for the course. Class discussion based on the self-assessment establishes buy-in from the students as they see personal need for the course. Additionally, I have found that starting the semester with these assessments frames the course in that I (as the professor) have a better understanding of their skill levels and needs and can connect their assessments to the course curriculum and outcomes.

For example, in Week One when we are going over Time Management and time management strategies, I can refer back to the students’ self-assessments and goals. Asking the students to recall their scores and goals begins the process of cognitive monitoring (Flavell, 1979). It creates purpose and motivation for the students to learn the curriculum I am teaching and integrate it into their courses so that they will begin to develop and apply the new time management strategies in order to achieve their time management goals.

Students are then tasked with implementing the strategies in their courses and asked to display artifacts of the implemented strategies in a midterm and final portfolio that is shared in a personal conference with me. For example, a student may include a long-term planner of the semester with mapped out projects, papers, tests, and athletic games to show that they have started to use macro-level planning for time management. They might also include sample pages from a weekly planner to show prioritized “to-do” lists and items crossed off—micro-level planning.

Students also assess themselves again with the same informal self-assessments at midterm and at the end of the semester. Additionally, they retake the LASSI at the end of the semester and use the self-assessments and artifacts to compile a portfolio that includes a one-page reflection. In the final conference meeting with me, students use the portfolio to demonstrate their growth, as they discuss their goals, strategies used, plans for future goals, and growth.

Integrating Self-Assessment—As a Tool of Metacognition

In assessing themselves, students gain knowledge of what they believe about themselves and how they learn. In reflecting on their assessments and discussing their experiences with me in conferences and with other students in the class, students uncover inaccurate perceptions of self. Additionally, they form goals and learn and develop strategies that positively affect their college learning experience. This sharing of information also allows me, as the professor and Learning Specialist, to also engage in metacognition as I teach and develop curriculum to meet the needs of my students throughout the semester (Burkart, 2017). And while some may question the validity of self-assessments, Nuhfer (2018), found self-assessments to not only be valid but also to be useful tools for both professors and students to monitor learning.

Above I offered examples of how self-assessment is easily integrated into a college study strategy course; however, it can easily be integrated into any course. For example, in teaching literature or writing courses, I create self-assessments unique to that content area and the course outcomes. In literature courses, on the first day of the semester, I ask students to assess themselves in the following areas: critical reading, writing, speaking, time management, and small group work. I also have students read through the syllabus, create goals for each of those areas, and identify strategies they will use to achieve those goals. Additionally, I have them respond to the following questions:

What do you hope to get out of this course? How does it connect with your career and life goals?
How can I help you achieve your goals?
What challenges do you anticipate this semester? What resources are available to help you meet those challenges?
What else do you want me to know about you and what you have going on this semester?

Students share their assessments in small groups. Then, as a large group, we discuss the assessments and the syllabus. I collect the assessments, comment on them, and then return them. Students refer back to them again at midterm and at the end of the semester when they complete synthesis reflections about their growth and achievement of course outcomes.

Benefits of incorporating student self-assessment

The inclusion of these assessments has been helpful in many ways. They have helped students feel that they are listened to by their professor. The assessments also assist me in quickly and easily conducting a needs assessment of my students so that I can reflect upon and adjust my teaching to their needs (i.e. engage in metacognitive instruction).

Most importantly, it encourages students to reflect on their own learning and empowers them to take control of their learning and results in increased motivation and a sense of purpose; this is the power of metacognition and why it matters to retention. When this recursive process activates the self-system (Mead, 1962/1934; Bandura, 1994; Marzano, 2001; Piaget, 1954; Vygotsky, 1934/1987; Burkart, 2010), it develops grit and a growth mindset (Burkart, 2010; Duckworth, 2019; Dweck, 2007). And as Flavell (1979) noted, fostering cognitive monitoring is an important part of learning, as there is “far too little rather than enough or too much cognitive monitoring in this world” (p. 910).

References

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanEncy.html

Burkart, G. (2017, 3^rd ed). 16 weeks to college success. Kendall Hunt: Dubuque, IA.

Burkart, G. (2017, fall). Using the LASSI to engage metacognitive Strategies that foster a growth mindset in college students placed on academic probation (per request). LASSI in Action. Retrieved from https://www.hhpublishing.com/ap/_assessments/LASSI-in-Action-Articles/LASSI-In-Action-Fall-2017.pdf

Duckworth, A. L., Quirk, A. Gallop, R., Hoyle, R. H., Kelly, D. R., & Matthews, M. D. (2019). Cognitive and noncognitive predictors of success. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(47), 23499-23504. Doi:10.1073/pnas.1910510116.

Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books.

Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive development inquiry. American Psychologist 34(10), 906-9-11.

Marzano, R. J. (2001). Designing a new taxonomy of educational objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist.

Nuhfer, E. (2018). Measuring metacognitive self-assessment: Can it help us assess higher-order thinking. Improve with Metacognition. Retrieved from

Piaget J. (1959). The language and thought of the child. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

Taraban, R. (2019). The metacognitive reading strategies questionnaire (MRSQ): Cross-cultural comparisons. Improve with Metacognition. Retrieved from https://www.improvewithmetacognition.com/metacognitive-reading-strategies/

Vygotsky L. S. (1934/1987). Thinking and speech. The collected works of Lev Vygotsky (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Plenum Press.