Author: Dana Melone

Improving Metacognition By Understanding Cognitive Bias

by Dana Melone, Cedar Rapids Kennedy High School

This school year, I had the unique opportunity to continue to teach the Psychological Sciences as well as a course on Brain Based Study Techniques. As part of the psychology curriculum, I have always had a unit that taught students the various cognitive biases as well as how they impact their lives. In talking with my Study Technique students this year and reading their reflections in class on our lessons and how they are applying them to their classes, I noticed a common trend. They are making these cognitive errors in their own thinking and it was hurting their studying and learning.

I took this bit of anecdotal evidence and had students examine their own biases after their quizzes, exams, and course interactions. My hope was that this process would help them develop awareness of their own biases in their thinking and in turn help guide their future thinking and behaviors. It is not enough to just be metacognitive, but students must also be aware of when they might be relying on a biased interpretation of their studying and learning. The hope is that students will learn to recognize that bias has influenced their thinking and make adjustments as needed.

Photo of eyeglasses. Text through the lenses looks clear while other text is blurred.

Targeted Cognitive Biases

There are over 50 cognitive biases that psychologists consider when they examine thinking, but I chose 3 of the biases to have my students examine:

  1. Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance occurs when we have a belief and we in turn do something that goes against that belief. That produces internal cognitive discomfort for us, so we develop an excuse to make ourselves feel better. Excuses can be truthful but they can also be non truths we tell ourselves to get over the discomfort. The most common way I saw this occurring with my students was after doing poorly on an exam.The students knew they should be getting help when needed and studying in the right way. When they did not do that thing, they often claimed that the teacher disliked them, they did not have time to use better study techniques, or the test was so hard no one could have passed it.
  2. Self-Serving Bias: This occurs when we attribute good things that happen to us as a result of our own actions and in turn, negative things that happen to us are attributed to an external cause. I saw this with my students in our discussions as well. When students succeeded on a quiz or test they were almost always attributing that to their study method, understanding of the material, and ease of the test. When they did poorly, they talked about the test having things on it they did not study, or that teacher purposely created hard exams, etc.
  3. Overconfidence: This bias occurs when we think we know more than we really do. We overestimate our ability on something. It can occur multiple ways, but my focus was post exam. Students receive a quiz or test score and really think they are about to get a great score. Instead, their score was much lower than they were expecting. I would often see students talk about this in their reflections. They would really think they knew the material and were shocked that they did not score well on the exam.

Overcoming the Biases

Once I realized that students were making these types of cognitive errors, I taught a lesson on the errors and we went over various examples. I then added an analysis of these biases to their weekly reflections of their classwork, test, and quiz outcomes.

  1. Cognitive Dissonance: Think about cognitive dissonance and the three phases: I have a belief, I do something that goes against that belief, I develop an excuse to relieve the discomfort. This class is all about using correct learning, studying, and communicating techniques to improve our learning outcomes. This knowledge about effective learning represents our beliefs. In reflecting on your week, did you engage in behaviors that did not align with those beliefs and then fall victim to this bias? If so, explain. Then describe how you will help yourself overcome this in the future. If you feel you did not fall victim to this bias, provide commentary on how you overcame it with an example from your week.
  2. Self-Serving Bias: Examine your reflection of the week. Choose a positive element from your reflection and explain how others helped to contribute to your success. Choose a negative element from your reflection and explain what you personally could have done differently to help change the outcome.
  3. Overconfidence: Did you have any tests or quizzes this week that produced a lower score than you were expecting? If so, what could you have done differently in your preparation that may have helped you avoid overconfidence?

The goal of adding these questions was to help students think about ways their own cognitive errors may be contributing to their studying, learning, and assessment scores. Metacognition is best when we also incorporate awareness of possible bias and errors in our cognitions. My hope is that students will think about these biases as they move through high school and life, and that in turn they will use that thinking to become better learners in all their courses.


Teaching Study Skills Through Retrieval Practice, Interleaving, and Spaced Practice

by Dana Melone, Cedar Rapids Kennedy High School

We all want our students to study effectively. Many of our students fall into the trap of doing what they have always done. They do this for a lot of reasons. Maybe it has worked for them in the past and now suddenly their method is not working, maybe they were never taught how to study and assumed it must be intuitive, or maybe they have never needed to study in the past. The list can go on and on. As educators, we know that study habits are an important part of academic achievement.

I teach five sections of Advanced Placement Psychology with an average of about 150 students per school year. These students are sophomores, juniors, and seniors from a variety of different socioeconomic, racial and ethnic groups. My students also come in with a variety of experience in taking advanced courses and a variety of ranges of grade point averages. I talk with my students at the beginning of the school year about their study habits to determine whether I need to teach them study skills.

The words "Patterns of Misconceptions" are repeated several times

Here are just a few of the patterns of studying/learning misconceptions that I see:

Misconceptions
  • More time studying means better knowledge of the topic
  • Re-reading the content or re-reading the notes is effective studying
  • Re-examining course slides is effective studying
  • Flashcards of vocabulary will lead to exam success
  • Listening to music or watching TV while studying is ok
  • Using books and notes while studying is taking place is enough
  • Studying looks the same no matter the course or style of exam
  • Every item in the course must be studied

After seeing these patterns year after year, I wanted to teach my students effective study methods and the use of metacognition in studying. I wanted the focus to be on continuous modeling of this in the course and honest discussions about how this can be used at home as a study tool. For the past few years I have been focusing on clearing up misconceptions about studying, and teaching students methods of retrieval practice, interleaving multiple areas of content, and spacing out their retrieval practice over time for better retention. This focus helps my students provide their own feedback on what they know and do not know.

Retrieval practice is defined as “A learning strategy where we focus on getting information out” (retrievalpractice.org). This means I am teaching my students to talk, write, and answer questions about the content without looking at the material while they are doing it. By focusing on on retrieval over time (spacing of learning), plus weaving in multiple topics from the course at a time (interleaving), I am helping my students become self sufficient in determining what they know and what they do not know about the content and its connection to other units in the course.

I incorporate these three high efficacy learning strategies in my classroom in multiple ways and encourage students to use similar techniques in their own studying. Here are a few examples:

  • At the end of every unit I provide my students with an online questionnaire that sends them their results and results to me as well. This questionnaire poses questions asking them to state as much information about a current topic as they possibly can, to then connect that information to content from each of our previous units. They then reflect on what they remembered and how well they could connect it to other content areas. They are supposed to answer the questionnaire without referring to notes or text materials.
  • I provide students with multiple questions from a chapter and have them answer them in as much detail as they can without looking at their notes. They then change ink color and use books and notes answer what they could not originally answer on their own. This exercise provides them with a great visual of what they did and did not know for an entire unit. I call this a brain dump. This name is based off others I have seen in my professional networks. These can be used at any time in a unit, but I prefer to give these to students a week or so prior to an exam.
  • Another activity similar to a brain dump is a single topic retrieval activity. I take a topic that is addressed over multiple content areas and have them write down as much content as they can without their books or notes by applying it to each area it has appeared in. They then switch ink colors and walk around the room to fill in their gaps. This often includes a prediction of how it might appear in future topics. I call this a retrieval practice challenge. This activity reminds students that we have discussed this topic before from a different viewpoint or lense and allows them to have some predictive discussion of a new lens.

            My students have really responded to these methods but it has taken a lot of teaching and reteaching the method and the reasoning behind the use of the method. Many of them have started creating them for their other classes. I have seen a decrease in students asking me for fill in the blank study guides and an increase in students asking me for tips on how to use retrieval practice to study a variety of topics. My plan moving forward is to show students correlation data from their exams showing the relationship between retrieval practice and test scores.


Psychological Myths are Hurting Metacognition

by Dana Melone, Cedar Rapids Kennedy High School

Every year I start my psychology class by asking the students some true or false statements about psychology. These statements are focused on widespread beliefs about psychology and the capacity to learn that are not true or have been misinterpreted.  Here are just a few:

  • Myth 1: People learn better when we teach to their true or preferred learning style
  • Myth 2: People are more right brained or left brained
  • Myth 3: Personality tests can determine your personality type

Many of these myths are still widely believed and used in the classroom, in staff professional development, in the workplace to make employment decisions, and so much more.  Psychological myths in the classroom hurt metacognition and learning.  All of these myths allow us to internalize a particular aspect of ourselves we believe must be true, and this seeps into our cognition as we examine our strengths and weaknesses. 

Myth 1: People learn better when we teach to their true or preferred learning styles

The learning style myth persists.  A Google search of learning styles required me to proceed to page three of the search before finding information on the fallacy of the theory.  The first two pages of the search contained links to tests to find your learning style, and how to use your learning style as a student and at work.  In Multiple Intelligences, by Howard Gardner (1983), the author developed the theory of multiple intelligences.  His idea theorizes that we have multiple types of intelligences (kinesthetic, auditory, visual, etc.) that work in tandem to help us learn.  In the last 30 years his idea has become synonymous with learning styles, which imply we each have one predominant way that we use to learn.  There is no research to support this interpretation of learning styles, and Gardner himself has discussed the misuse of his theory.  If we perpetuate this learning styles myth as educators, employees, or employers, we are setting ourselves up and the people we influence to believe they can only learn in the fashion that best suits them. This is a danger to metacognition.  For example, if I am examining why I did poorly on my last math test and I believe I am a visual learner, I may attribute my poor grade to my instructor’s use of verbal presentation instead of accurately reflecting on the errors I made in studying or calculation. 

image of human brain with list of major functions of the left and right hemispheres

Myth 2: People are more right brained or left brained

Research on the brain indicates a possible difference between the right and left-brain functions.  Most research up to this point examines the left brain as our center for spoken and written language while the right brain controls visual, imagery, and imaginative functions among others.  The research does not indicate, however, that a particular side works alone on this task.  This knowledge of the brain has led to the myth that if we perceive ourselves as better at a particular topic like art for example, we must be more right brained.  In one of numerous studies dispelling this myth, researchers used Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to examine the brain while completing various “typical” right and left brained tasks.  This research clearly showed what psychologists and neurologists have known for some time.  The basic functions may lie in those areas, but the two sides of the brain work together to complete these tasks (Nielsen, Zielenski, et. al., 2013). How is this myth hurting metacognition?  Like Myth 1, if we believe we are predetermined to a stronger functioning on particular tasks, we may avoid tasks that don’t lie with that strength.  We may also use incorrect metacognition in thinking that we function poorly on something because of our “dominant side.” 

Myth 3: Personality tests can determine your personality type

In the last five years I have been in a variety of work-related scenarios where I have been given a personality test to take.  These have ranged from providing me with a color that represents me or a series of letters that represents me.  In applying for jobs, I have also been asked to undertake a personality inventory that I can only assume weeds out people they feel don’t fit the job at hand.  The discussion / reflection process following these tests is always the same.  How might your results indicate a strength or weakness for you in your job and in your life, and how might this affect how you work with people who do and do not match the symbolism you were given?   Research shows that we tend to agree with the traits we are given if those traits contain a general collection of mostly positive and but also a few somewhat less positive characteristics. However, we need to examine why we are agreeing.  We tend not to think deeply when confirming our own beliefs, and we may be accidentally eliminating situational aspects from our self-metacognition.  This is also true when we evaluate others. We shouldn’t let superficial assumptions based on our awareness of our own or someone else’s personality test results overly control our actions. For example, it would be short-sighted to make employment decisions or promotional decisions based on assumptions that, because someone is shy, they would not do well with a job that requires public appearances. 

Dispelling the Myths

The good news is that metacognition itself is a great way to get students and others to let go of these myths. I like to address these myths head on.  A quick true false exercise can get students thinking about their current beliefs on these myths. Then I get them talking and linking with better decision-making processes.  For example, I ask what is the difference between a theory or correlation and an experiment?  An understanding of what makes good research and what might just be someone’s idea based on observation is a great way to get students thinking about these myths as well as all research and ideas they encounter.  Another great way to induce metacognition on these topics is to have students take quizzes that determine their learning style, brain side, and personality.  Discuss the results openly and engage students in critical thinking about the tests and their results.  How and why do they look to confirm the results?  More importantly what are examples of the results not being true for them?  There are also a number of amazing Ted Talks, articles and podcasts on these topics that get students thinking in terms of research instead of personal examples. Let’s take it beyond students and get the research out there to educators and companies as well.   Here are just a few resources you might use:

Hidden Brain Podcast: Can a Personality Test Tell Us About Who We Are?: https://www.npr.org/2017/12/04/568365431/what-can-a-personality-test-tell-us-about-who-we-are

10 Myths About Psychology Debunked: Ben Ambridge: https://tedsummaries.com/2015/02/12/ben-ambridge-10-myths-about-psychology-debunked/

The Left Brain VS. Right Brain Myth: Elizabeth Waters: https://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-left-brain-vs-right-brain-myth-elizabeth-waters

Learning Styles and the Importance of Critical Self-Reflection: Tesia Marshik: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=855Now8h5Rs

The Myth of Catering to Learning Styles: Joanne K. Olsen: https://www.nsta.org/publications/news/story.aspx?id=52624


Utilizing Student-Coded Exams for Responsive Teaching and Learning

by Dana Melone, Cedar Rapids Kennedy High School

Welcome to the start of a semester for most teachers.  My name is Dana Melone and I teach AP Psychology and AP Research at Cedar Rapids Kennedy High School.  Most educators will give some sort of multiple-choice test during the semester, and as educators we want our students to use their exams as a learning tool, not just as a summative experience.  Unfortunately, many students just pop a graded exam into their folder and move on.  Today I would like to give you some strategies you can use as a teacher to get students to learn from their mistakes as well as their correct answers.  

pencil laying across a multiple-choice test question

These strategies also give teachers the opportunity to look at their own teaching and find commonalities in the mistakes their students are making. If your students are all making similar mistakes you can reteach this topic in a new way.  If mistakes are spread out it may inform you that your students need to work on study skills.  Your students can use these examples to examine their own thinking and learning (become more metacognitive) and become advocates for themselves.   You and your students utilize metacognitive processes to become better teachers and learners.

Let’s start with the exam itself.  Students often get their exam back and struggle to remember what their thinking was when they took it. If you are giving a paper exam, students can use a coded system as they take their test to remember their thinking later.  For example, if a student feels they knew the answer to the question and they feel confident in their choice then they can put a checkmark next to that question.  If they were able to narrow it down but were not entirely sure they made the right choice they can put a dash next to the question.  If they had no idea than they can use an x.  This allows students to remember their thinking as they look back at their exam. Students can find out if they are always missing similar style or topic questions that they thought they already knew.  They can use these self-coded exams as they get close to finals as a study tool.  Students can also take note whether or not their thinking was correct.  If they are the ones about which they felt confident wrong, they need to explore that further.   Student-coded exams also allow teachers to look at patterns for their own use and modify their teaching appropriately, i.e. be metacognitive in their teaching.  For example, teachers can change their focus if a large number of students indicated that they did not know similar concepts or struggled with application questions.  Or, if students indicate that they narrowed down to the best two choices but chose poorly, teachers can share strategies to deal with that issue.  Why do this?  The hope is that students will become more aware of what is working and what isn’t and that by making them more aware, they will make adjustments. By regularly practicing these metacognitive skills, we hope that students will learn to adjust on their own.

Once students get their exam back a next step for many teachers is to have students complete exam corrections.  I have seen many formats of exam corrections.  The methods that really get students thinking about the content and their own testing strategy produce metacognitive awareness.  Here are some methods that you could use individually or combine:

  1. Have students write why they think they got the question wrong.  Was it an error in reading the question?  Did they not know the content?  Did they narrow it down to two but chose incorrectly?
  2. Have students explain why the answer they chose is incorrect or why the correct answer is correct.
  3. Have students rewrite the question to make their wrong answer right.
  4. Have students write a memory aid to help them remember that concept in the future.
  5. Have students write out what they found tricky about that concept.
  6. Have students write out how that concept relates to them or another concept in the course.
  7. Have students categorize the concepts they missed by learning target or standard and draw a conclusion about that target or standard as a whole.  Many classrooms are moving to standards-based learning or a select few overrising concepts students must master to be proficient in the course.  If you can organize your exam to show students patterns they are making with these standards, it can help them make good study decisions and help you make good teaching decisions.

How can we as educators know if students have gotten the most out of this process?  Try including questions on the most commonly missed topics on future exams at no cost to the students. Meaning, do not penalize their score.  Make these questions formative to see if they are making progress.   Do you have great ideas for test corrections that produce metacognition? Let us know.