Facilitating Metacognition in a First-Year Writing Course

By Dr. Gina Burkart, Clarke University

Metacognition and First-Year Students

The first year of college can be a difficult transition for students, as they often lack many of the basic skills to navigate the cognitive dissonance that happens that first year. Integrating tools, strategies, and assessments into first-year writing courses that foster self-reflection also offer students the opportunity to think about their own thinking. Students are often unable to “bridge the gap” of college because they don’t have the “meta-discourse” or “meta-awareness” to engage in the writing and discussions of the university (Gennrich & Dison, 2018, pp. 4-5). Essentially, it is important for first-year students to engage in what Flavell (1979) described as metacognition—thinking about what they are doing, how they are doing it, and why they are doing it, so they can make adjustments to accurately and effectively meet the needs of the situation, purpose, and audience (Victori, 1999).

This type of rhetorical analysis builds metacognitive practices integral to the first-year writing and can guide students in discovering their own voice and learning how to use it in different academic disciplines. Within the first-year writing course, portfolio conferences are especially helpful in leading students through this type of metacognitive practice (Gencel, 2017; Alexiou & Parakeva, 2010; 2013; Farahian & Avazamani, 2018). However, course curriculum should be thoughtfully created so that students are first introduced to metacognition in the beginning of the semester and led through it repeatedly throughout the semester (Schraw, 1999).

Designing a First-Year Writing Course that Facilitates Metacognition

While self-reflection has always been part of the first-year writing courses I have taught, this year I introduced metacognition in the beginning of the semester and reinforced it throughout the semester as students engaged with the course theme – Motivation. I embedded my college-success curriculum 16 Weeks to College Success: The Mindful Student, Kendall Hunt into the course, which provided tools and strategies for the students to use as they learned college writing practices.

This approach was particularly helpful in a writing class because the metacognitive reflective activities reinforced writing as a tool for learning. For example, during the first-week of the semester, students discussed the syllabus in groups and created learning plans for the course using a template. The template helped them pull out essential information and think through a personalized action plan to find success within the context of the course (see Learning Plan Template, Figure 1). For example, based on the course readings: How would they read? What strategies would they use? How much time would they devote to the reading? How often would they read? What resources would they use? Students turned in their learning plans for assigned points—and I read through the plans and made comments and suggestions. Students were told that they would update their plans over the course of the semester, which they would place in their portfolio to display growth over time.

Students also took two self-assessments, set goals based on their self-assessments, and created a time management and study plan to achieve their goals. Similar to the learning plans, these activities were also turned in for points and feedback and included in their final portfolios to demonstrate growth. One asked them to self-assess on a scale of 1-5 in key skills areas that impact success: Reading, Writing, Note-Taking, Time Management, Organization, Test-Taking, Oral Communication, Studying, and Motivation. This self-assessment also included questions in metacognitive reflection about the skills and how they relate to the course. The second self-assessment (included in the 16 Weeks textbook) was the LASSI —a nationally normed self-assessment on the key indicators of college success—provided quantitative data on a scale of 1-99. The LASSI dimensions were mapped to the skill areas for success to facilitate students’ goal setting using the goal setting chart (See Goal Setting Chart, Figure 2).

Throughout the semester, students completed skill and strategy activities from the 16 Weeks textbook supporting students’ goals and helping them complete course assignments. For example, when students were assigned their first reading assignments, the strategies for critical reading were also introduced and assigned. Students received points and feedback on their use of the reading strategies applied to the course readings, and demonstrated their application of the reading strategies through a reading journal. This reading journal was included in the portfolio (see Reading Journal template, Figure 3).

Students also were taught note-taking strategies so they could take more effective notes while watching assigned course videos on Growth Mindset, Grit and Emotional Courage. As a result, students were able to apply and learn new strategies while being exposed to key concepts related to identity, self-reflection, and metacognition. In fact, all of the course writing, speaking, and reading assignments also led the students to learn and think about topics that reinforce metacognition.

Portfolio Assessment

As portfolio assessment has been shown to positively affect metacognition and writing instruction (Farahian & Avarzmani, 2018; Alexiou & Parakva, 2010; 2013; Gencel, 2017), it seemed an appropriate culminating assessment for the course. The course curriculum built toward the portfolio throughout the semester in that the course assignments included the four steps suggested by Schaw (1998): 1) introduced and reinforced an awareness of metacognition 2) supported course learning and use of strategies 2) encouraged regulated learning 3) offered a setting that was rich with metacognition. Additionally, the course curriculum and final portfolio assessment conference included the three suggested variables of metacognitive knowledge: person, task, and strategic.

Students created a cover letter for their portfolios describing their growth in achieving the goals they set over the course of the semester. Specifically, they described new strategies, tools and resources they used and applied in the course and their other courses that helped them grow in their goal areas. The portfolio included artifacts demonstrating the application and growth. Additionally, students included their self-assessments and adjusted learning plans. Students also took the LASSI assessment as a post test in week 14 and were asked to include the pre and post-test assessments in the portfolios to compare their quantitative results and discuss growth and continued growth as part of the final conference (See Portfolio Rubric, Figure 4).

When meeting with students, students read their cover letters and talked me through their portfolios, showing me how they used and applied strategies and grew in their goal areas over the course of the semester. Part of the conversation included how they would continue to apply and/or adjust strategies, tools, and resources to continue the growth.

To reinforce metacognition and self-reflection, I had students score themselves with the portfolio and cover letter rubrics. I then scored them, and we discussed the scores. In all instances, students either scored themselves lower or the same as I scored them. They also appreciated hearing me discuss how I arrived at the scores and appreciated feedback that I had regarding their work.

In summary, students enjoyed the portfolio conferences and shared that they wished more professors used portfolios as assessments. They also shared that they enjoyed looking at their growth and putting the portfolio together. All students expressed a deeper understanding of self and expectations of college writing, reading, and learning. They also demonstrated an understanding of strategies and tools to use moving forward and gratitude for being given tools and strategies. LASSI scores demonstrated greatest growth in the skill areas of: Anxiety, Selecting Main Ideas, Self-Testing (Fall semester); Time Management, Concentration, Information Processing/Self-Testing (Spring semester). While the results reinforce that students show different areas of growth, students in both classes demonstrated highest areas of growth in reading (Selecting Main Ideas or Information Processing). Additionally, these skill areas (Time Management, Concentration, and Self-Testing) demonstrate the ability to self-regulate—suggesting that regular reinforcement of metacognition throughout the writing course and the portfolio assignment may have had a positive effect on growth and the acquisition of metacognitive practices (Shraw, 1999; Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006).

References

Alexiou, A., & Paraskeva, F. (2010). Enhancing self-regulated learning skills through the implementation of an e-portfolio tool. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 3048–3054.

Burkart, G. (2023). 16 weeks to college success: The mindful student. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt.

Farahian M. & Avarzamanim, F.. (2018) The impact of portfolio on EFL learners’ metacognition and writing performance, Cogent Education, 5:1, 1450918, https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1450918

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906

Gencel, I.E. (2017). The effect of portfolio assessments on metacognitive skills and on attitudes toward a course. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 293-319.

Gennrich, T. & Dison, L. (2018). Voice matters: Students struggle to find voice. Reading & Writing, 9(1), 1-8.

Schraw, G. (1999). The effect of metacognitive knowledge on local and global monitoring. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 143-154.

Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1, 3-14.

Victori, M. (1999). An analysis of writing knowledge in EFL composing: A case study of two effective and two less effective writers. System, 27(4), 537-555.

Weinstein, C., Palmer, D., & Acee, T. (2024). LASSI: Learning and study strategy inventory. https://www.collegelassi.com/lassi/index.html

Assessing Reflective Writing with the Index for Metacognitive Knowledge

Reflection is a staple of contemporary writing pedagogy and writing assessment. Although the power of reflective writing has long been understood in writing studies, the field has not made progress on articulating how to assess the reflective work. Developed at the crossroads of research in reflection and metacognition, the Index for Metacognitive Knowledge (IMK) is designed to help writing researchers, teachers, and students articulate what is being rewarded in the assessment of reflection and to articulate the role of metacognitive knowledge in critical reflective writing.

https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3dc6w4hg

Ratto Parks, Amy. (2023). What Do We Reward in Reflection? Assessing Reflective Writing with the Index for Metacognitive Knowledge. Journal of Writing Assessment, 16(1). DOI: 10.5070/W4jwa.1570

Using Business Ethics Case Studies to Foster Metacognition and DEI (Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion) Appreciation

by Dr. Charles Zola, Associate Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Catholic and Dominican Institute

The values of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) have recently emerged as an area of concern in many areas of contemporary American life. Societal pressure and expectations have motivated many in the business community to examine how these values are promoted in contemporary American business practice. Similarly, accreditors for schools of business now require that these values be reflected in the curriculum and that students demonstrate an awareness of and appreciation for DEI. However, they have not been proscriptive in how this is to be accomplished. I suggest that using case studies can serve this learning outcome and by having students reflect upon their proposed resolutions to DEI-related moral dilemmas arising in business, they develop metacognitive skills which engenders a greater understanding of the implications of DEI in the workplace.

Case Studies and Metacognition

Case studies have long been used as part of business ethics pedagogy. Utilizing case studies promotes understanding of ethical theories that are usually unfamiliar to students and can gradually build student confidence in arguing a moral point of view with the aim of solving a moral dilemma. Beyond this, case study pedagogy can be employed to develop students’ metacognitive capacities. After applying ethical theories to navigate moral dilemmas and justify proposed solutions, students can be prompted to examine why they choose the moral theories that they do and why they apply them in the way they do. Additionally, students can be prompted to resolve the same case study employing a different moral theory, for example, substituting deontological or virtue ethics for a utilitarian approach. They then compare how their proposed resolutions align. In doing so, students not only gain fluency in applied ethical reasoning, but a greater awareness of how their own moral reasoning changes in each iteration. This practice challenges students to be more conscious and reflective about their thinking in terms of application of ethical principles to the same case study and if such application alters the resolution in any way. Inculcating this approach into course pedagogy strengthens students’ metacognitive activity.

If time allows, continued reflection can encourage students to consider the suitability of the application of moral principles among cases, revealing greater similarity and differences not only in the theories themselves but also in procedures and policies that regulate business. In assessing the effectiveness of their proposed solutions, students can be further prompted to re-examine their moral dialectics to ascertain if all aspects of a moral dilemma are adequately addressed and if the moral agents impacted find themselves in a better or worse situation.

One way that this can be encouraged is that for each case study, students could chart the application of each ethical theory where they identify the way/s that moral agents were impacted and how the potential outcomes varied. Each chart can then serve as a metacognitive tool that students use to reflect upon their own thinking processes. If case study analysis is done by teams of smaller groups within a class, then the charts can provide even more information for reflection. A comparison and review of the charts can result in discovering where some essential points were inadequately addressed or not addressed at all, or where potential outcomes were not foreseen. This may result in having students revisit and revise their earlier positions and think about how they reasoned through the moral dilemma. On the other hand, these charts can reveal how their moral reasoning resulted in optimal outcomes, thus affirming the important and practical role that business ethics has for business practice. These varied approaches encourage students to reflect upon their critical thinking and cultivate metacognitive awareness.

Case Studies and DEI

One of the most important topics of a business ethics course that relates to DEI is justice. Classically defined as “giving to each their due,” justice is an essential moral value that regulates how businesses are expected to operate both internally and within the wider community and, thus, is a core value of DEI. Addressing almost every area of business from workplace etiquette to graver considerations such global warming, case studies can be utilized to foster appreciation for the importance of justice. At minimum, businesses act justly in respecting civil law, especially in relation to Civil Rights. These laws seek to eradicate decades of inequality and injustice in terms of business activities related to hiring, promotion, discipline, and discharge of employees and this is closely aligned with the objectives of DEI initiatives. Extending beyond, corporate social responsibility challenges businesses to consider just actions in terms of paternalistic actions within the community that range from philanthropy to efforts to curb and reduce the exploitation of natural resources that often contributes disproportionate harm and inequalities for populations in developing economies.

Case studies drawn from the aforementioned topics can help students understand how justice and the values and goals of DEI are related to business in two distinct ways. First, the case studies themselves can illustrate challenges and opportunities for creating a more diverse, inclusive, and equitable workplace, or how businesses can effectively support those values beyond the workplace through initiatives related to corporate social responsibility.

The other is by reframing the case studies themselves. Changing key characteristics of the moral agents can generate greater sensitivity to some of the moral aims of DEI. Switching the age, sex, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and socio-economic identity of a moral agent invites students to view the case study and moral dilemma in a different light and from multiple perspectives. For example, would the moral dilemma and proposed solution be the same if the main character was no longer a Hispanic woman but a White woman who was diagnosed with cancer and recently divorced? Are the demands of justice to give to each their due reflected in the case study analysis and subsequent resolution? This reframing can challenge students to reconsider their own moral analysis and proposed resolutions from a more empathetic perspective, hopefully engendering a greater sensitivity to the goals of DEI.

In light of this, students can be encouraged to consider if they would remain committed to what they initially viewed as the moral dilemma, or would this alter the analysis? Similarly, would the proposed resolution of the moral conflict remain the same or would change as well? Further prompting encourages metacognition by challenging students to reflect upon how and why the reframing might have altered their thinking about the moral dimensions of the case study as well as its resolution.

Equally important in raising issues related to justice and DEI is a concern for rectifying societal inequalities of the past. Students can be prompted to review and reflect upon their analysis and proposed resolution of a moral dilemma to discern if it advances the interests of traditionally marginalized groups and affirms a more equitable society. Crafted in this way, case study analysis can raise students’ exploration of the meaning of corporate social responsibility and how it reflects a commitment to social justice.

Beyond this, students could be encouraged to reflect on how their own identities and circumstances may have shaped how they responded to the case study. In what way and to what extent might their own biographies have influenced their impressions about the situation that had been presented and how they reasoned to resolve it? Students can be prompted to examine if their moral reasoning betrayed a bias due to their own circumstances and if not, why not? Such an exercise can be doubly beneficial if students work in teams and share with fellow students their observations, yielding an even wider perspective about how a diversity of viewpoints may impact the resolution of a moral dilemma. Furthermore, doing so also models for students a respect for diversity and inclusion by giving each member of their team “their due” in being able to share their views and having them considered.

Using case studies in the ways described can help to advance one of the essential learning outcomes for schools of business, namely, that future business professionals aspire to ethical conduct in their professional lives and promote it in everyday business practice. Too often, case study pedagogy can remain a mere academic exercise completed unrelated to personal development and cultivating reassessment of personal moral codes. If so, such pedagogical practice is sterile. However, careful attention to case study pedagogy that encourages metacognitive reflection can gradually cultivate habits of moral thinking that translates into moral agency that eventually can be transformative of business practice as it relates to the goals of DEI.

Democratizing a Classroom: The Challenge of Student Engagement and Metacognition

by Dr. Sonya Abbye Taylor, Associate Professor of Education and Chair of Education Division

INTRODUCTION: DEMOCRATIZING A CLASSROOM AND CREATING A COMMUNITY OF LEARNERS

John Dewey in 1917, introduced the concept of student engagement. In creating classroom democracies, “communities … permeated throughout with the spirit of art, history, and science”— environments where students became self-directed, committed to service, and engaged in experiences reflective of society. Dewey believed in relevant curriculum, meaningful to students’ lives—in which students are thoroughly engaged with content, among a community of learners functioning as and in society. I believe that a community of learners relies upon student engagement and metacognition is intrinsically connected to being engaged. Student engagement provides the core of democratic classrooms, with the role of promoting and educating towards diversity, equity, and inclusion.

THE CHALLENGE OF METACOGNITION AND STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

I prepare teacher candidates to work with diverse populations, including students with special needs. I have rarely had complaints regarding grades. Students could predict grades because they had processed feedback and reflected on their work throughout the semester. Yet, last spring I received a complaint. Considering her grades averaged within the “A” range, a student questioned why she received an “A-.” She questioned if her grade was related to participation for which she received 35/75 points; she was correct. This experience required me to reflect on Dewey’s concepts of engagement in relation to class participation and to reflect on connections between learning and engagement. Aligning Dewey’s concept of “community of learners” with student engagement, I see how metacognition—the student’s and my own—underlies this pedagogical struggle. What was the student’s understanding of engagement and participation? How did her understanding equate with my own?

During this course, held synchronously, online, this student was invisible except for two presentations for which visibility was required. However, when reviewing videos, I found times she responded in chat and discussions: brief responses, one-word comments or a sentence, emanating from a black box on the screen.

My expectations for students in online environments are comparable to in-person classes. Classes include discussions that require sharing ideas, asking questions, analyzing, and deliberating. The 75 points allocated, places value on discussions. If a student is silent throughout a semester, they have not contributed to the community. Yet, this student perceived themselves to have been engaged, to have demonstrated engagement, and therefore eligible for full- credit.

As I thought about this contradiction the following questions emerged:

What do we learn when we:

learn in isolation?
interact with individuals within a learning community?
delve into content while engaging within a learning community?

Most importantly, what is the relationship between learning, engagement, and learning within the community, in preparing students to be teachers for the democratic society Dewey describes?

For teacher educators and teacher candidates, answers to these questions provide more fodder for thought. We can learn in isolation. We can memorize information alone, anywhere or engage with a text while reading thoughtfully, asking silent questions of the text and author. We can learn sitting silently in a classroom. We CAN learn in isolation, but WHAT do we learn? What opportunities are missed when we function in this manner?

A silent classroom has always been troublesome to me. Student engagement and class participation are synonymous to me. It is joyful to hear students discussing content, actively listening, asking questions, and sharing opinions based on their frame of reference.

Isn’t that the vision of democracy Dewey conveys?
Don’t these interactions provide practice communicating, and enable students to see another’s point of view, to understand perspectives and experiences of individuals from other cultures?
Aren’t these the interactions that enable us to understand and appreciate one another?

Students can learn content without opportunities and expectations for engagement with others. However, in vibrant learning communities, students ask questions and question themselves; they think and rethink concepts because of the various influences. They use metacognitive processes to evolve as learners.

I changed the student’s grade because she perceived her actions constituted participation. Though the student received an “A,” I did her no favor. Informed by Dewey, I believe the “A” she received was not as valuable as the “B’s,” “A-’s,” or “A’s,” earned by other students who demonstrated engagement. Those students were visible: the expressions on their faces illuminated their thoughts. Posing thoughtful questions and adding to discussions, those students enriched the experience for us all. They responded while they were processing. When their responses were askew, conversation ensued that brought the level of thought and understanding to higher levels. They demonstrated their commitment to learning and being part of a community were more important than having the “right” answer. They earned my respect and my confidence, knowing that their classrooms will be full of engaged learners, that they will encourage their students to think and will engage them in metacognitive practices.

CONCLUSION

I agonized over this grade, and by doing so, I know I served myself and my future students well. I will redouble my efforts to define and explain the value of engagement in relation to “community” and to create more activities, pose more questions and provide collaborative assignments that inspire engagement in efforts to make engagement palpable. I will do a better job of calling attention to student engagement. I will continue to honor askew responses because of the thought processes they illuminate. Metacognition has brought me to these conclusions, and will be the catalyst for changes that I’ll incorporate in my instruction and the emphasis I will place on my students to be self-directed.

In processing and metacognitively rethinking ideas for my classes and revisions for this paper, I reflected further on Dewey’s perception of engagement for a community of learners reflective of the society, and have come to this conclusion. We teach classes with diverse students therefore we have the opportunity and obligation to create environments in our classrooms where students can be productive members of the classroom society. We must create environments where students can function efficiently and develop the skills and behaviors desirable in a democratic society. In these environments students are respected and are comfortable to take risks; they listen to each other, communicate effectively, accept each other’s opinions, settle disagreements, celebrate each other’s successes, and support each other through difficult times. By creating these environments in teacher education classrooms perhaps there would be consensus as to the quality and value of engagement.

Works Cited

Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. Simon and Brown, 2012

Improve with Metacognition

Month: May 2024