Month: July 2018

Metacognitions About a Robot

by Roman Taraban, Ph.D., Texas Tech University

Imagine a time when intelligent robots begin interacting with humans in sophisticated ways. Is this a bit farfetched? Probably not, as there already exist compelling examples of just that. Sophia, a robot, so impressed her Saudi audience at an investment summit in 2017 that she was granted Saudi citizenship. Nadine, another robot, is an emotionally intelligent companion whose “intelligent behavior is almost indistinguishable from that of a human”. The coming exponential rise of artificial intelligence into all aspects of human behavior requires a consideration of possible consequences. If a machine is a billion times more intelligent than a human, as some predict will happen by 2045, what will cognitive and social interactions with such superhuman machines be like? Chris Frith (2012) argues that a remarkable human capacity is metacognition that concerns others. However, what if the “other” is an intelligent machine, like a robot. Is metacognition about a robot feasible? That is the question posed here. Four aspects of metacognition are considered: the metacognitive experience, theory of mind, teamwork, and trust. Other aspects could be considered, but these four should be sufficient to get a sense of the human-machine metacognitive possibilities.

robot and human hand fist bump

Flavell (1979) defined metacognitive experiences as follows: “Metacognitive experiences are any conscious cognitive or affective experiences that accompany and pertain to any intellectual enterprise. An example would be the sudden feeling that you do not understand something another person just said” (p. 906). Other examples include wondering whether you understand what another person is doing, or believing that you are not adequately communicating how you feel to a friend. We can easily apply these examples to intelligent machines. For instance, I might have a sudden feeling that I did not understand what a robot said, I might wonder if I am understanding what a robot is doing, or I may believe that I am communicating poorly with the robot. So it appears to be safe to conclude that we can have metacognitive experiences involving robots.

Other instances of metacognition involving intelligent machines, like robots, are problematic. Take, for instance, mentalizing or Theory of Mind. In mentalizing, we take account (monitor) of others’ mental states and use that knowledge to predict (control) others’ and our own behavior. In humans, the ability to reason about the mental states of others emerges between the ages of 4 to 6 years and continues to develop across the lifespan. In a typical test of this ability, a child observes a person place an object in drawer A. The person then leaves the room. The child observes another person move the object to drawer B. When the first person returns, the child is asked to predict where the person will look for the object. Predicting drawer A is evidence that the child can think about what the other person believes, and that the child recognized that the other person’s beliefs may not be the same as the child’s own knowledge. Theory of mind metacognition directed towards humans is effective and productive; however, theory of mind metacognition directed to intelligent machines is not likely to work. The primary reason is that theory of mind is predicated on having a model of the other person and being able to simulate the experience of the other person. Because intelligent machines process information using algorithms and representations that differ from those humans use, it is not possible to anticipate the “thinking” of these machines and therefore predict their behavior in a metacognitive manner, i.e., having a theory of the other mind. Presently, for instance, intelligent machines use deep learning networks and naïve Bayes algorithms to “think” about a problem. The computational methods employed by these machines differ from those employed by humans.

What about teamwork? According to Frith (2012), humans are remarkable in their ability to work together in groups. Teamwork accounts for humans’ incredible achievements. The ability to work together is due, in large part, to metacognition. The specific factor cited by Frith is individuals’ willingness to share and explain the metacognitive considerations that prompted their decision-making behavior. For group work to succeed, participants need to know the goals, values, and intentions of others in the group. As has been pointed out already, machine intelligence is qualitatively different from human knowledge, so that is one barrier to human-machine group work. Further, the benefits of group work depend on a sense of shared responsibility. It is currently unknown whether or how a sense of cooperation and shared responsibility would occur in human-machine decision making and behavior.

There is one more concern related to machine intelligence that is separate from the fact that machines “think” in qualitatively different ways compared to humans. It is an issue of trust. In some cases of social interaction, understanding information that is being presented is not an issue. We may understand the message, but wonder if our assessment of the source of the information is reliable. Flavell (1979) echoed this case when he wrote: “In many real-life situations, the monitoring problem is not to determine how well you understand what a message means but to determine how much you ought to believe it or do what it says to do” (p. 910). When machines get super smart, will we be able to trust them? Benjamin Kuipers suggests the following: “For robots to be acceptable participants in human society, they will need to understand and follow human social norms.  They also must be able to communicate that they are trustworthy in the many large and small collaborations that make up human society” https://vimeo.com/253813907 .

What role will metacognitions about super-intelligent machines have in the future? Here I argue that we will have metacognitive experiences involving these machines. Those experiences will occur when we monitor and regulate our interactions with the machines. However, it is not clear that we will be able to attain deeper aspects of metacognition, like theory of mind. This is because the computations underlying machine intelligence are qualitatively different from human computation. Finally, will we be able to trust robots with our wealth, our children, our societies, our lives? That will depend on how we decide to regulate the construction, training, and deployment of super intelligent machines. Flavell (1979) often brings in affect, emotion, and feelings, into the discussion of metacognitive experiences. Kuipers emphasizes the notion of trust and ethics. These are all factors that computer scientists have not begun to address in their models of intelligent machine metacognition (Anderson & Oates, 2007; Cox, 2005). Hopefully solutions can be found, in order to enable rich and trustworthy relationships with smart machines.

References

Anderson, M. L., & Oates, T. (2007). A review of recent research in metareasoning and metalearning. AI Magazine, 28(1), 12.

Cox, M. T. (2005). Field review: Metacognition in computation: A selected research review. Artificial intelligence, 169(2), 104-141.

Flavell, John H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.

Frith, C. D. (2012). The role of metacognition in human social interactions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1599), 2213-2223.


Using Metacognition to Support Graduating High School Seniors with a LD to Prepare and Transition Successfully to College (Part II)

by Mary L. Hebert, PhD
Campus Director, The Regional Center for Learning Disabilities,
Fairleigh Dickinson University

High school commencement ushers forth connotations of caps and gowns, goodbyes to four years of familiar teachers, friends, routine, challenges and successes. While the focus seems to be on completing a phase of one’s life, commencement actually means a beginning or a start. With high school now a chapter completed, the summer months will be spent preparing for the transition to college. ALL students entering college will have similar adjustments. Students with a history of a learning disability however, may benefit from a purposeful, strategic, or more metacognitive plan for the transition.

Transition and Related Feelings

Students who have had a 504 or Individualized Education Plan (IEP) during their k-12 years, may face concerns that are similar to other students, yet have a heightened sensitivity to things such as academic performance, managing the pace and independence of college life, leaving behind supports and resources that have been familiar and helpful, and wondering where and if resources at college will be available and/or helpful. They will have similar concerns about making new friends like any first year student, but this may be heightened in particular if a student has had social challenges that have accompanied their LD. Students with a history of LD will often express the challenge of finding balance of work, study, time to relax and be social. Findings by Hall and Webster (2008) indicate that college students with LD indicate self-doubt about being able to perform as well as their non-LD college peers. Encouraging an active preparation to foster self-awareness and building strategies of approach will enrich the metacognitive preparation.

In this post, I will continue my series on how we can use metacognitive practices to support LD students during this transition time (see also Part I). Here I will focus on three key areas including academics, social interactions, and finding balance. Prompts in the form of questions are suggested for each area. Metacognition encourages the enrichment of self-awareness through prompts and reflection to create high level critical thinking and concepts that one can apply to a situation and how one functions.

I propose that metacognition can be applied before day one at college and hopefully assist with a more metacognitive approach to the transition prior to stepping onto campus.

Academics:

Most students ponder how college will be different than high school. Students with learning disabilities frequently ponder this more so. College academics will be different. Typically students experience the differences in coursework to be in regard to the degree of independence in preparing and mastering the material and the pace. Students can be encouraged to converse and even better, to list their reflections to prompts which will increase self-awareness about the differences they anticipate and what strategies they might apply to prepare to respond to managing the differences (i.e. encourage metacognition). Prompts that parents, teachers, tutors, and others familiar with the student can consider may include;

  • How do you think classes will be different in college?
  • What strategies have you learned in high school that you will bring to college?
  • What areas do you still have a hard time with?
  • What resources will there be in college that can help you with these areas?
  • Have you looked on your college website or reached out for more information for resources you will reach out to for support?
  • Is there a program on your campus that specifically responds to the needs of students with LD and are do you intend to reach out to this resource?

Supporting a student in answering and reflecting on these prompts will promote a more metacognitive awareness and ultimately help create a plan for the academic tasks of college. It is the student who is least prepared about the differences between high school and college who may face the most difficulty during the transition. Preparation prevents perspiration and is key to the transition.

Social:

If there were one particular common denominator for transitioning first year students, it is the adjustment to their new social arena on campus. No matter who he or she has been friends with or how many or few, they will need to build a new social circle. Supporting an incoming Freshmen to think about and anticipate changes and choices they will have to make will help them adjust and ponder what is going to be important and a priority for them in the adjustment to their social life at college. In preparation to take on the tasks of social adjustment the goal is to enhance the awareness of what skills will be needed to connect with new friends,

For one’s anticipated social adjustment a person familiar and supportive to the student can prompt the student to respond to the following…

  • How have I been successful in my relationships with peers and authority figures in the past?
  • Where have I had challenges?
  • What two areas do I think need to change?
  • How will these improve how I manage socially?
  • What activities or interests do I have that may be areas I pursue in college clubs or organizations?
  • What resources does my new college have that I can use to help me in making social connections?

These and other prompts can channel past experience into helpful reflection, which will not only help a student organize and reflect on challenges in this arena, but also highlight successes and strengths so that these can become a part of a strategy or plan they can put in their college transition ‘toolbox.’

Balance:

Balance is key for us all and truly a never-ending endeavor; however during the first year it is particularly challenging to establish that balance. Students with LD often have a history of structured support in tackling academics, time management, sleep, recreation, etc. College life will usher in a new life of finding a balance more independently. Time management as well as being adequately organized are two of the most commonly discussed issues. They are key factors toward success as well as factors that interfere with it as well. Encourage your student to once again reflect on some prompts to encourage metacognitive reflection and promote a plan of approach. Consider the following:

  • What is your plan for keeping track of your course work and other commitments (social, clubs, appointments etc)? A traditional planner book? A digital planning system?
  • What efforts to stay organized have worked in the past? Why/why not?
  • What has not worked in the past? Why/why not?
  • How will you fit in sleep, wellness needs, recreation, and other commitments with school work?
  • What will be challenging in doing this?
  • What will be the red flags you are having a hard time finding a balance?
  • What will be your plan of action if you are having a hard time with the balance of college life?
  • What will be your go to resources on campus and off campus to support you in finding balance?

In conclusion, supportive prompts and reflection will promote awareness, critical thinking, and purposeful planning for these issues in the transition to college. Doing so prior to day one of college is helpful, but it can also be continued as the student enters college and embraces the new realities of college life.

Understanding how one approaches academics is particularly important for a student with a learning disability. This will be key for college wellness and help them navigate the transition. By applying metacognition, the student can be encouraged to not only think about their thinking about these concepts of academics, social development and finding balance but also to discern strategies to apply and increase the value of their perception of capacity to self-manage the challenges ahead. With these skills in hand, self-advocacy is heightened, which is a key element of success for college students with learning disabilities.

Hall, Cathy W. and Raymond E. Webster (2008). Metacognitive and Affective Factors of College Students With and Without Learning Disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability. 21 (1)